Monitoring CO₂ injection for carbon capture and storage using time-lapse 3D VSPs

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the process through which a nearly pure carbon dioxide (CO₂) stream is captured, separated from flue gas or other industrial processes, compressed, transported to an appropriate storage site, and injected deep underground into a geological formation where it can be safely stored for long-term geologic storage (Benson, 2005). Large sedimentary basins, such as the Illinois, Michigan, and Western Canadian sedimentary basins are good targets for CCS, as they are in close proximity to large CO₂ emitters and are composed of the appropriate saline formations and overlying nonpermeable formations. In 2003, the U.S. Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory (DOE-NETL) created a nationwide network of federal, state, and private sector partnerships to determine the most suitable technologies, regulations, and infrastructure for future CCS in different areas of the North America (Office of Fossil Energy, 2013).