Foresight: Empedocles’ On Nature, P. Strasb. Gr. Inv. 1665–6, a theory of networks and evolutionary growth ~2,400 years before Darwin

The Strasbourg papyrus fragments of the Upper Egyptian city of Panopolis are puzzling. The writings, which have been attributed to Empedocles by direct transmission, describe a process of evolutionary growth. Here we dissect translations of this ~2,000-year old hexameter text and confirm that it describes both a theory of evolution by natural selection akin to that of Darwin and the existence of lineages in an evolving network of life. However, the theory appears more profound and ancient. It presents network-like processes of unification and diversification that explain biological accretion and growth. The theory is compatible with knowledge from modern biology. It also matches a recent model of biological module creation that is supported by the phylogenomic analysis of the structure of millions of protein and nucleic acid molecules. The ancient text shows remarkable foresight in biological prediction.