Abstract
Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), a nationally representative data set, we examined the extent to which mothers of preschool children with and without the diagnosis of an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) reported stress and depressive symptoms prior to and following diagnosis of ASD. At 4 years, approximately 100 children were parent-identified as diagnosed with ASD. Mothers of children with ASD at 9 months and 4 years had significantly higher incidence of depressive symptoms and stress than mothers of typically developing children. Mothers of children with ASD experienced higher levels of depressive symptoms than mothers of children with disabilities, but the difference was not statistically significant. Using linear regression, a within-group comparison of depressive symptoms of mothers of children with ASD indicated no differences based on child gender, ethnicity, number of children in the family, or partnership status. Implications are presented.
| Original language | English (US) |
|---|---|
| Pages (from-to) | 162-171 |
| Number of pages | 10 |
| Journal | Topics in Early Childhood Special education |
| Volume | 33 |
| Issue number | 3 |
| DOIs | |
| State | Published - Nov 2013 |
Keywords
- Autism Spectrum Disorder
- depression
- ECLS-B
- maternal stress
ASJC Scopus subject areas
- Education
- Public Health, Environmental and Occupational Health
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In: Topics in Early Childhood Special education, Vol. 33, No. 3, 11.2013, p. 162-171.
Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review
}
TY - JOUR
T1 - Examining ECLS-B
T2 - Maternal Stress and Depressive Symptoms When Raising Children With ASD
AU - Jeans, Laurie M.
AU - Santos, Rosa Milagros
AU - Laxman, Daniel J.
AU - Mcbride, Brent A.
AU - Dyer, W. Justin
N1 - Funding Information: “Research has shown that the interactions of parents with their children with disabilities can have a profound impact on the progress that a child makes in his or her therapeutic or educational programs” ( Lessenberry & Rehfeldt, 2004 , p. 231). With that impact in mind, researchers have explored the factors that have contributed to the stress of raising children with ASD (e.g., Baker-Ericzen et al., 2005 ; Cassidy et al., 2008 ; Davis & Carter, 2008 ; Hastings et al., 2005 ; Hoffman et al., 2008 ). Cassidy and colleagues (2008) found the two most commonly mentioned impacts on family life were the stress and strain of parenting a young child with ASD and the social restrictions placed on the family. Multiple studies indicate that a child’s behavior does play a role in increasing maternal stress and depressive symptoms ( Boyd, 2002 ; Cassidy et al., 2008 ; Hastings et al., 2005 ; Herring et al., 2006 ; Olsson & Hwang, 2001 ; Tomaniket al., 2004 ). In addition, the difficulties, and the associated stress, faced by mothers of children with ASD are universal and cross cultures ( Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010 ). While our study has focused on maternal stress and depressive symptoms when raising young children with ASD, it is important for future research to examine the roles fathers play in the function of families faced with this challenging disability. As Flippin and Crais (2011) noted in their review of the literature, fathers of children with ASD are underrepresented in research and early intervention. Furthermore, the research is mixed as to whether fathers of young children with ASD experience similar levels of stress to mothers ( Davis & Carter, 2008 ; Hastings, 2003 ; Hastings et al., 2005 ) or lower levels of stress ( Dabrowska & Pisula, 2010 ; Olsson & Hwang, 2001 ; Tehee et al., 2009 ). Yet when compared with fathers of typically developing children, fathers of young children with ASD experience significantly higher stress levels ( Flippin & Crais, 2011 ). Clearly any family-focused intervention must account for the well-being of all parenting partners. The higher levels of maternal stress and depressive symptoms at the first time point for mothers of children with ASD, when compared with mothers of typically developing children, may be indicative of concerns they are already experiencing related to their child’s development. Conversely, as suggested by Duarte and colleagues (2005) , mothers of children with ASD may have innate factors that make them more prone to experience stress. By understanding maternal personality factors, family interventionists may gain a better understanding of maternal stress as they develop interventions for families of young children with ASD ( Duarte et al., 2005 ). Examining the influence of time since diagnosis on parenting behaviors is a direction for future research. With the current uncertainty of the cause(s) of ASD and the multiple treatment interventions available, parents are faced with a large quantity of information in the few months following diagnosis, as well as increases in stress levels. More longitudinal studies would allow researchers to view coping strategies used by parents over time. In addition, more comprehensive interviews of parents, including the use of focus groups (i.e., parents facing similar difficulties raising toddlers with ASD), would guide future practitioners on the resources and supports that families would like available to assist in their parenting a child with ASD. As reported by Steiner, Koegel, Koegel, and Ence (2012) , parent education is a universal element of interventions designed for young children with ASD, yet more work is needed to develop effective ways to conduct these sessions, particularly as new technology-based formats become available. Parent education, individualized to match specific family needs and empower parents with strategies to address challenges, has the potential of reducing parenting stress ( Koegel et al., 2005 ; Steiner et al., 2012 ). While mothers spend the most time with their young children with ASD, when compared with service providers, the stress and strain of providing full-time intensive intervention (as in Applied Behavior Analysis [ABA] therapy) suggests that programs should not rely heavily on mothers at therapists ( Schwichtenberg & Poehlmann, 2007 ). Furthermore, the literature indicates that informal social support can have an impact on reducing stress in mothers of children with autism (e.g., Boyd, 2002 ; Ekas et al., 2010 ; Gill & Harris, 1991 ; Twoy, Connolly, & Novak, 2007 ). Herring and colleagues (2006) recommended that “an emphasis on providing early intervention for behaviour and emotional problems, along with additional support, education and skills training for parents, is justified” (p. 880) when addressing needs of families of young children with ASD. The importance of the immediate family in providing social support to its members when raising a child with ASD is repeatedly mentioned in the literature ( Bristol, 1987 ; Dunn et al., 2001 ; Ekas et al., 2010 ), but more research is needed to determine the most effective informal social supports. Identifying stressors associated with caring for young children with ASD is the first step toward designing interventions to reduce or eliminate factors that negatively affect family function and maternal well-being. In a bidirectional impact of identified stressors and maternal stress, “it seems reasonable to expect that the levels of stress a parent experiences may affect the frequency and quality of interactions with their child” ( Lessenberry & Rehfeldt, 2004 , p. 232). Future investigation should assess maternal well-being at all phases of an intervention program (e.g., before, during, and after) in an effort to provide empirical evidence of useful practices. Assessment of stress and depressive symptoms might reveal aspects of a mother’s relationship with her child, which are stress provoking. These areas can then become the focus of intervention research and development. Helping families cope with the stressful challenges of raising their young children with ASD would be a valuable target area for future intervention work. Authors’ Note Opinions reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the granting agencies (Office of Special Education Programs and IES). Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Funding The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported in part by a leadership grant from the Office of Special Education Programs (Project FOCAL, H325D070061) and an IES grant to B. McBride, R. Santos, S. Hong, and W. J. Dyer (R324A120174).
PY - 2013/11
Y1 - 2013/11
N2 - Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), a nationally representative data set, we examined the extent to which mothers of preschool children with and without the diagnosis of an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) reported stress and depressive symptoms prior to and following diagnosis of ASD. At 4 years, approximately 100 children were parent-identified as diagnosed with ASD. Mothers of children with ASD at 9 months and 4 years had significantly higher incidence of depressive symptoms and stress than mothers of typically developing children. Mothers of children with ASD experienced higher levels of depressive symptoms than mothers of children with disabilities, but the difference was not statistically significant. Using linear regression, a within-group comparison of depressive symptoms of mothers of children with ASD indicated no differences based on child gender, ethnicity, number of children in the family, or partnership status. Implications are presented.
AB - Using the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Birth Cohort (ECLS-B), a nationally representative data set, we examined the extent to which mothers of preschool children with and without the diagnosis of an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) reported stress and depressive symptoms prior to and following diagnosis of ASD. At 4 years, approximately 100 children were parent-identified as diagnosed with ASD. Mothers of children with ASD at 9 months and 4 years had significantly higher incidence of depressive symptoms and stress than mothers of typically developing children. Mothers of children with ASD experienced higher levels of depressive symptoms than mothers of children with disabilities, but the difference was not statistically significant. Using linear regression, a within-group comparison of depressive symptoms of mothers of children with ASD indicated no differences based on child gender, ethnicity, number of children in the family, or partnership status. Implications are presented.
KW - Autism Spectrum Disorder
KW - depression
KW - ECLS-B
KW - maternal stress
UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/record.url?scp=84884949177&partnerID=8YFLogxK
UR - http://www.scopus.com/inward/citedby.url?scp=84884949177&partnerID=8YFLogxK
U2 - 10.1177/0271121413481680
DO - 10.1177/0271121413481680
M3 - Article
AN - SCOPUS:84884949177
SN - 0271-1214
VL - 33
SP - 162
EP - 171
JO - Topics in Early Childhood Special education
JF - Topics in Early Childhood Special education
IS - 3
ER -