Examination, Therapeutics, and Monitoring of the Cardiovascular System: Section I: Examination of the Cardiovascular System

Auscultation is the principal means to evaluate the equine heart. Auscultation alone can diagnose mitral and tricuspid regurgitation with 53–100% specificity, making auscultation an essential part of evaluation in horses, including neonates. An electrocardiogram is required to definitively diagnosis any dysrhythmia. In horses, dysrhythmias can be associated with a wide range of cardiac and noncardiac diseases. Cardiovascular monitoring is important in critically ill neonatal foals for whom hemodynamic derangements are common. Computed tomography angiography allows for minimally invasive assessment of the neonatal thorax. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging is considered the gold standard for evaluation of cardiac morphology and measurement of cardiac function and is well-described in humans, dogs, and cats. Echocardiography is the primary tool for identification of all forms of structural acquired cardiac disease. Cardiovascular drugs comprise an important component of therapy of the critically ill foal. Several therapeutics are used for hemodynamic support, including inotropes and vasopressors.