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• 63rd Street Beach Restoration, Chicago Lake Michigan Shoreline

  McGuire, M. P., 2013, Landscape Performance Series - Case Studies.

  Research output: Contribution to specialist publication › Special issue

  Open Access

• 65% of Americans believe they are above average in intelligence: Results of two nationally representative surveys

  Heck, P. R., Simons, D. J. & Chabris, C. F., Jul 2018, In: PloS one. 13, 7, e0200103.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Review article › peer-review

  • Intelligence
  • census data
  • Psychology
  • psychology
  • Censuses

• 65 years of coal mined out areas in Illinois; evolution of coal mined out area maps at the Illinois State Geological Survey (ISGS)

  Myers, A., Chenoweth, C., Obrad, J., Korose, C. & Elrick, S. D., 2016, Abstracts with Programs - Geological Society of America. Champaign, IL, Vol. 48:5.

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • geological survey
  • coal
  • documentation
  • coal mine
  • industry

• 67th annual Midwest Clinic International Band and Orchestra Clinic

  Peterson, E. B., 2013

  Research output: Non-textual form › Performance

• "69 is more than a number to me": Sex-related humor in seniors' online communities

  Nimrod, G. & Berdychevsky, L., Nov 2016.

  Research output: Contribution to conference › Paper › peer-review

• 6 Ezra and The Apocalypse of Thomas. With a previously unedited 'interpolated' text of Thomas

  Wright, C. D., Jan 1 2015, In: Apocrypha (Turnhout, Belgium). 26, p. 9-55 47 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Recension
  • Apocalypse
  • Quotation
  • Kassel
  • British Writer

• 780 nm oxide-confined VCSEL with 13.5 Gb/s error-free data transmission

  Liu, M., Wu, M. K., Tan, F., Bambery, R., Feng, M. & Holonyak, N., Apr 1 2014, In: IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. 26, 7, p. 702-705 4 p., 6728712.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Oxides
  • data transmission
  • surface emitting lasers
  • threshold currents

• "7-Gauge Divining Rod" (Scraped oak; with Shuangshuang Wu) and "Waterfall I-CWG" (white caulk, linden; with kevin Stewart)

  Hays, D. L., 2011

  Research output: Non-textual form › Artefact

• 7 Log Virus Removal in a Simple Functionalized Sand Filter

  Samineni, L., Xiong, B., Chowdhury, R., Pei, A., Kuehster, L., Wang, H., Dickey, R., Soto, P. E., Massenburg, L., Nguyen, T. H., Maranas, C., Velegol, D., Kumar, M. & Velegol, S., Nov 5 2019, In: Environmental Science and Technology. 53, 21, p. 12706-12714 9 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Viruses
  • virus
  • Sand
  • filter
  • sand

• 7^th IEEE International Workshop on Middleware Support for Pervasive Computing (PerWare 2010): Message from the workshop chairs

  Schiele, G., Ranganathan, A., Campbell, R. H. & Paluska, J. M., Jul 1 2010, In: 2010 8th IEEE International Conference on Pervasive Computing and Communications Workshops, PERCOM Workshops 2010. 5470583.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Editorial › peer-review

• 8.7 A 4-to-10.5Gb/s 2.2mW/Gb/s continuous-rate digital CDR with automatic frequency acquisition in 65nm CMOS

  Shu, G., Choi, W. S., Saxena, S., Anand, T., Elshazly, A. & Hanumolu, P. K., Apr 14 2014, 2014 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, ISSCC 2014 - Digest of Technical Papers. p. 150-151 2 p. 6757377. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference; vol. 57).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Spurious signal noise
  • Clocks
  • Detectors
  • Clock and data recovery circuits (CDR circuits)
  • Recovery

• 85°C operation of 850 nm VCSELs Deliver a 42 Gb/s error-free data transmission for 100 meter MMF link

  Wang, H. L., Qiu, J., Yu, X., Feng, M. & Holonyak, N., Jun 13 2018, 2018 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exposition, OFC 2018 - Proceedings. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., p. 1-3 3 p. (2018 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exposition, OFC 2018 - Proceedings).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Forward error correction
  • data transmission
  • Equalizers
  • Data communication systems

• 85°C operation of 850 nm VCSELs deliver a 42 Gb/s error- free data transmission for 100 meter MMF Link

  Wang, H. L., Qiu, J., Yu, X., Feng, M. & Holonyak, N., Jan 1 2018, Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC 2018. OSA - The Optical Society, W1I.6. (Optics InfoBase Conference Papers; vol. Part F84-OFC 2018).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Forward error correction
  • Equalizers
  • Data communication systems

• 85°C operation of single-mode 850 nm VCSELs for high speed error-free transmission up to 1 km in OM4 fiber

  Qiu, J., Yu, X. & Feng, M., 2019, Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC 2019. OSA - The Optical Society, OFC-2019-W3A.4. (Optics InfoBase Conference Papers; vol. Part F160-OFC 2019).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Laser modes
  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Fibers
  • Oxides
  • Temperature

• 850 nm oxide-confined VCSELs with 50 Gb/s error-free transmission operating up to 85 °c

  Liu, M., Wang, C. Y., Feng, M. & Holonyak, N., Dec 16 2016, 2016 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO 2016. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 7788446. (2016 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics, CLEO 2016).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Oxides
  • data transmission
  • Data communication systems
  • bandwidth

• 850 nm oxide-VCSEL with low relative intensity noise and 40 Gb/s error free data transmission

  Tan, F., Wu, M. K., Liu, M., Feng, M. & Holonyak, N., Feb 1 2014, In: IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. 26, 3, p. 289-292 4 p., 6589110.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Oxides
  • noise intensity
  • data transmission
  • Data communication systems

• 850 nm VCSELs for 50 Gb/s NRZ Error-Free Transmission over 100-Meter OM4 and up to 115 °c Operation

  Wang, H. L., Fu, W., Qiu, J. & Feng, M., Apr 22 2019, 2019 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition, OFC 2019 - Proceedings. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 8696328. (2019 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition, OFC 2019 - Proceedings).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Laser modes
  • bandwidth
  • oxides
  • performance

• 850 nm VCSELs for 50 Gb/s NRZ error-free transmission over 100-meter OM4 and up to 115 ^oC Operation

  Wang, H. L., Fu, W., Qiu, J. & Feng, M., 2019, Optical Fiber Communication Conference, OFC 2019. OSA - The Optical Society, OFC-2019-W3A.1. (Optics InfoBase Conference Papers; vol. Part F160-OFC 2019).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Surface emitting lasers
  • Laser modes
  • Oxides
  • Bandwidth

• 85C Operation of Single-Mode 850 nm VCSELs for High Speed Error-Free Transmission up to 1 km in OM4 Fiber

  Qiu, J., Yu, X. & Feng, M., Apr 22 2019, 2019 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition, OFC 2019 - Proceedings. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 8696938. (2019 Optical Fiber Communications Conference and Exhibition, OFC 2019 - Proceedings).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Laser modes
  • Surface emitting lasers
  • high speed
  • Fibers
  • fibers

• 85 dB dynamic range 1.2 mW 156 kS/s biopotential recording IC for high-density ECoG flexible active electrode array

  Ha, S., Park, J., Chi, Y. M., Viventi, J., Rogers, J. A. & Cauwenberghs, G., Dec 31 2013, ESSCIRC 2013 - Proceedings of the 39th European Solid-State Circuits Conference. p. 141-144 4 p. 6649092. (European Solid-State Circuits Conference).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Integrated circuits
  • Electrodes
  • Multiplexing

• 85 years later, RQES remains young, energized, innovative, and strong!

  Zhu, W., Dec 1 2013, In: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport. 84, 4, p. 405-406 2 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Editorial › peer-review

• 8-Alkylthio-6-thio-substituted theophylline analogues as selective noncompetitive progesterone receptor antagonists

  Aninye, I. O., Berg, K. C., Mollo, A. R., Nordeen, S. K., Wilson, E. M. & Shapiro, D. J., May 2012, In: Steroids. 77, 6, p. 596-601 6 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Theophylline
  • Progesterone Receptors
  • Progestins
  • Ligands
  • Cells

• ⁹⁰Sr Therapy For Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma In Two Cats

  Nagata, K., Selting, K. A., Cook, C. R., Renschler, M. & Lattimer, J. C., Jan 1 2011, In: Veterinary Radiology and Ultrasound. 52, 1, p. 114-117 4 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • squamous cell carcinoma
  • Cats
  • Squamous Cell Carcinoma
  • cats
  • therapeutics

• 90th Anniversary Commentary: Prebiotics in Infancy for Allergy Prevention: Promising Findings, but No Consensus

  Donovan, S. M., Oct 1 2018, In: Journal of Nutrition. 148, 10, p. 1691-1692 2 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Comment/debate › peer-review

• ^99mTc-labeling of peptidomimetic antagonist to selectively target α_vβ₃ receptor-positive tumor: Comparison of PDA and EEDA as co-ligands

  Shin, I. S., Maeng, J. S., Jang, B. S., You, E., Cheng, K., Li, K. C. P., Wood, B., Carrasquillo, J. A., Danthi, S. N. & Paik, C. H., 2010, In: Current Radiopharmaceuticals. 3, 1, p. 1-8 8 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Peptidomimetics
  • Acids
  • Ligands
  • Neoplasms
  • ethylenediamine

• 9 Elements of Cahokian Neighborhoods

  Betzenhauser, A. & Pauketat, T. R., Jul 2019, In: Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association. 30, 1, p. 133-147 15 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Cahokia
  • Craft Production
  • Animate
  • eleventh century
  • American Indians

• 9nm node wafer defect inspection using three-dimensional scanning, a 405nm diode laser, and a broadband source

  Zhou, R., Edwards, C., Bryniarski, C. A., Popescu, G. & Goddard, L. L., Jan 1 2015, Metrology, Inspection, and Process Control for Microlithography XXIX. Sanchez, M. I. & Cain, J. P. (eds.). SPIE, 942416. (Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering; vol. 9424).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Defect Inspection
  • Diode Laser
  • Wafer
  • Broadband
  • Scanning

• 9nm node wafer defect inspection using visible light

  Zhou, R., Edwards, C., Popescu, G. & Goddard, L. L., Jan 1 2014, Metrology, Inspection, and Process Control for Microlithography XXVIII. SPIE, 905017. (Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering; vol. 9050).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Defect Inspection
  • Wafer
  • Defects
  • inspection
  • Inspection

• A. C. Littleton's final thoughts on accounting: A collection of unpublished essays

  Persson, M. E., Jan 1 2016, In: Studies in the Development of Accounting Thought. 20, p. 1-524 524 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Warranty
  • Copying
  • Licensing
  • License

• A (Latin) Revelation of John about Antichrist

  Wright, C. D., 2016, (Accepted/In press) More Christian Apocrypha. Burke, T. (ed.). New York: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, p. 479-87 9 p.

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Chapter

• A (slightly) faster algorithm for Klee's measure problem

  Chan, T. M., Apr 2010, In: Computational Geometry: Theory and Applications. 43, 3, p. 243-250 8 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Fast Algorithm
  • Computational geometry
  • Computational Geometry
  • Logarithm
  • Arrangement

• A [RuRu] Analogue of an [FeFe]-Hydrogenase Traps the Key Hydride Intermediate of the Catalytic Cycle

  Sommer, C., Richers, C. P., Lubitz, W., Rauchfuss, T. B. & Reijerse, E. J., May 4 2018, In: Angewandte Chemie - International Edition. 57, 19, p. 5429-5432 4 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Hydrogenase
  • Hydrides
  • Amines
  • Proteins
  • Iron

• A 0.0021mm2 1.82mW 2.2GHz PLL using time-based integral control in 65nm CMOS

  Zhu, J., Nandwana, R. K., Shu, G., Elkholy, A., Kim, S. J. & Hanumolu, P. K., Feb 23 2016, 2016 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, ISSCC 2016. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., p. 338-340 3 p. 7418045. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference; vol. 59).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Phase locked loops
  • Capacitors
  • Clocks
  • Jitter
  • Digital to analog conversion

• A 0.016 mm² 0.26-μ W/MHz 60-240-MHz Digital PLL With Delay-Modulating Clock Buffer in 65 nm CMOS

  Zhu, J., Choi, W. S. & Hanumolu, P. K., Aug 2019, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 54, 8, p. 2186-2194 9 p., 8723106.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Phase locked loops
  • Clocks
  • Frequency stability
  • Relaxation oscillators
  • Controllers

• A 0.05-26 GHz direct conversion I/Q modulator MMIC

  Iverson, E. W. & Feng, M., Dec 5 2014, Technical Digest - IEEE Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Symposium, CSIC. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., 6978527. (Technical Digest - IEEE Compound Semiconductor Integrated Circuit Symposium, CSIC).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • indium phosphide
  • Indium phosphide
  • Heterojunction bipolar transistors
  • Monolithic microwave integrated circuits
  • Modulators

• A 0.45-0.7 v 1-6 Gb/s 0.29-0.58 pJ/b Source-Synchronous Transceiver Using Near-Threshold Operation

  Choi, W. S., Shu, G., Talegaonkar, M., Liu, Y., Wei, D., Benini, L. & Hanumolu, P. K., Mar 2018, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 53, 3, p. 884-895 12 p.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Transceivers
  • Electric potential
  • Calibration
  • Multiplexing
  • Clocks

• A 0.45-to-0.7V 1-to-6Gb/S 0.29-to-0.58pJ/b source-synchronous transceiver using automatic phase calibration in 65nm CMOS

  Choi, W. S., Shu, G., Talegaonkar, M., Liu, Y., Wei, D., Benini, L. & Hanumolu, P. K., Mar 17 2015, 2015 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, ISSCC 2015 - Digest of Technical Papers. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., p. 66-67 2 p. 7062928. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference; vol. 58).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Phase noise
  • Transceivers
  • Clocks
  • Calibration
  • Phase locked loops

• A 0.4-6-GHz frequency synthesizer using dual-mode VCO for software-defined radio

  Zhou, J., Li, W., Huang, D., Lian, C., Li, N., Ren, J. & Chen, J., Jan 1 2013, In: IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques. 61, 2, p. 848-859 12 p., 6387640.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • frequency synthesizers
  • voltage controlled oscillators
  • Frequency synthesizers
  • Variable frequency oscillators
  • computer programs

• A 0.4-6GHz LO generation system using a dual-mode VCO for software-defined radio

  Zhou, J., Li, W., Li, N. & Ren, J., Dec 1 2010, ICSICT-2010 - 2010 10th IEEE International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology, Proceedings. p. 740-742 3 p. 5667398. (ICSICT-2010 - 2010 10th IEEE International Conference on Solid-State and Integrated Circuit Technology, Proceedings).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Variable frequency oscillators
  • Tuning
  • Networks (circuits)

• A 0.4-to-3 GHz digital PLL with PVT insensitive supply noise cancellation using deterministic background calibration

  Elshazly, A., Inti, R., Yin, W., Young, B. & Hanumolu, P. K., Dec 2011, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 46, 12, p. 2759-2771 13 p., 5993463.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Phase locked loops
  • Calibration
  • Jitter
  • Electric potential
  • Degradation

• A 0.4-to-3GHz digital PLL with supply-noise cancellation using deterministic background calibration

  Elshazly, A., Inti, R., Yin, W., Young, B. & Hanumolu, P. K., May 12 2011, 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference - Digest of Technical Papers, ISSCC 2011. p. 92-93 2 p. 5746233. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Phase locked loops
  • Calibration
  • Jitter
  • Electric potential
  • Pumps

• A 0.55V 61dB-SNR 67dB-SFDR 7MHz 4 ^th-order Butterworth filter using ring-oscillator-based integrators in 90nm CMOS

  Drost, B., Talegaonkar, M. & Hanumolu, P. K., 2012, 2012 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, ISSCC 2012 - Digest of Technical Papers. Vol. 55. p. 360-361 2 p. 6177051

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Butterworth filters
  • Operational amplifiers
  • Bandwidth
  • Transistors
  • Electric potential

• A 0.5-to-2.5Gb/s reference-less half-rate digital CDR with unlimited frequency acquisition range and improved input duty-cycle error tolerance

  Inti, R., Yin, W., Elshazly, A., Sasidhar, N. & Hanumolu, P. K., May 12 2011, 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference - Digest of Technical Papers, ISSCC 2011. p. 438-439 2 p. 5746387. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Clocks
  • Recovery
  • Clock and data recovery circuits (CDR circuits)
  • Optical communication
  • Variable frequency oscillators

• A 0.5-to-2.5 Gb/s reference-less half-rate digital CDR with unlimited frequency acquisition range and improved input duty-cycle error tolerance

  Inti, R., Yin, W., Elshazly, A., Sasidhar, N. & Hanumolu, P. K., Dec 1 2011, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 46, 12, p. 3150-3162 13 p., 6069580.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Clocks
  • Recovery
  • Detectors
  • Clock and data recovery circuits (CDR circuits)
  • Calibration

• A 0.75-million-point fourier-transform chip for frequency-sparse signals

  Abari, O., Hamed, E., Hassanieh, H., Agarwal, A., Katabi, D., Chandrakasan, A. P. & Stojanovic, V., Jan 1 2014, 2014 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference, ISSCC 2014 - Digest of Technical Papers. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Inc., p. 458-459 2 p. 6757512. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference; vol. 57).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Fourier transforms
  • Fast Fourier transforms
  • Radar signal processing
  • Silicon
  • Pattern matching

• A 0.79 pJ/K-Gate, 83% efficient unified core and voltage regulator architecture for sub/near-threshold operation in 130 nm CMOS

  Zhang, S., Tu, J. S., Shanbhag, N. R. & Krein, P. T., Nov 1 2014, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 49, 11, p. 2644-2657 14 p., 6901296.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Voltage regulators
  • Capacitors
  • Energy efficiency
  • Electron energy levels
  • FIR filters

• A 0.7-to-3.5 GHz 0.6-to-2.8 mW highly digital phase-locked loop with bandwidth tracking

  Yin, W., Inti, R., Elshazly, A., Young, B. & Hanumolu, P. K., Aug 1 2011, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 46, 8, p. 1870-1880 11 p., 5892905.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Electronic circuit tracking
  • Phase locked loops
  • Jitter
  • Bandwidth
  • Tuning

• A 1.2A 2MHz tri-mode buck-boost LED driver with feed-forward duty cycle correction

  Bang, S., Swank, D., Rao, A., McIntyre, W., Khan, Q. & Hanumolu, P. K., Dec 13 2010, IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conference 2010, CICC 2010. 5617443. (Proceedings of the Custom Integrated Circuits Conference).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Light emitting diodes
  • Switching frequency
  • Capacitors
  • Electric potential

• A 1.2A buck-boost LED driver with 13% efficiency improvement using error-averaged SenseFET-based current sensing

  Rao, S., Khan, Q., Bang, S., Swank, D., Rao, A., McIntyre, W. & Hanumolu, P. K., May 12 2011, 2011 IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference - Digest of Technical Papers, ISSCC 2011. p. 238-239 2 p. 5746300. (Digest of Technical Papers - IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference).

  Research output: Chapter in Book/Report/Conference proceeding › Conference contribution

  • Light emitting diodes
  • Resistors

• A 1.2-A buck-boost LED driver with on-chip error averaged senseFET-based current sensing technique

  Rao, S., Khan, Q., Bang, S., Swank, D., Rao, A., McIntyre, W. & Hanumolu, P. K., Dec 1 2011, In: IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits. 46, 12, p. 2772-2783 12 p., 6007147.

  Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › peer-review

  • Light emitting diodes
  • Lithium-ion batteries
  • Networks (circuits)
  • Costs